The Athenian statesman who first championed democracy was a prolific poet. His verses reveal a fascinating link between poetry, politics, and the beginning of popular government in the Western world.
Solon of Athens
Writing two centuries after Solon’s death in 560 B.C., the Greek philosopher Aristotle noted that Solon “was by birth and reputation one of the leading citizens, but by property and business dealings one of the middle class.” He descended from Codrus, the last King of Athens, and was probably an ancestor of the philosopher Plato. Despite his aristocratic origins, Solon made a living from commerce, a profession elite Athenians deemed non-aristocratic.Since the 5th century B.C., Solon has been considered one of the Seven Sages of Greece, who were venerated by people across the eastern Mediterranean for their virtue. His political reforms set the stage for Athenian democracy, forever changing the world. Yet few realize that Solon’s success depended mainly on his ability to write poetry and perform it in public.
Atop the Acropolis hill sits the Parthenon, just part of the rich cultural heritage of Athens. Aerial-motion/Shutterstock
Democracy’s Roots
In the 6th century B.C., Athens was ruled by an aristocratic class known as the “Eupatridae” (“offspring of good fathers”). The Eupatridae owned the most and the best land, ruled to further their private interests, and were regularly caught up in family feuds. They often drove poorer citizens into debt by offering loans with harsh collateral. If borrowers were unable to repay, they could become indentured servants or, in extreme cases, be sold into slavery.Just like the poorest Athenians, the “middle class” of craftsmen and merchants also resented being excluded from decision-making, though neither had the means to oppose the ruling elites. Social instability almost always resulted from tensions between aristocrats who ruled and aristocrats who wanted to usurp power. The masses were swept along the tides of history, with little choice but to accept their fates.
Solon belonged to a growing minority of citizens who didn’t think such stark social and political disparities should exist. To spark change, he first needed to gain power.
A Call to Arms
Around 600 B.C., the Athenians suffered a tragic defeat against Megara, a neighboring city-state. They lost control of the island of Salamis, a strategic and commercial stronghold near Athens. To avoid future losses, the Athenian government prohibited anyone from proposing that Athens should lay claim to the island again.
A replica of an earlier (110 B.C.) Greek bust of Solon. Sailko/CC BY-SA 3.0
A patriot at heart, Solon rejected this defeatism. The ancient Greek historian Plutarch reported that Solon wrote a poem in a hurry, memorized it, then “ran out into the market-place with a cap upon his head, and, the people gathering about him, got upon the herald’s stand, and sang that elegy which begins thus: ‘I am a herald come from Salamis the fair, My news from thence my verses shall declare.’”
Poetry was associated with epic tales, mythic heroes, and invincible gods. It appealed to the general populace more effectively than “speech,” by which Solon meant the contrived legalese of assemblies and courtrooms.
The Athenians were swayed. They took to arms, defeated their enemies, and won back Salamis. This victory boosted Solon’s reputation, setting the stage for his successful political reforms.
"La paix victorieuse" by François Gilbert. Bas Relief of Solon. Marseille Courthouse, France. Rvalette/CC BY-SA 4.0
Solon’s Reforms
In 594 B.C., Solon was elected “archon,” or chief magistrate. He could finally introduce amendments to the existing constitution. “The laws were inscribed on the wooden stands,” Aristotle wrote, “and all swore to obey them.”First, Solon canceled all debts and freed all debt-slaves, undermining the Eupatridae’s control of Athens’s people. He also divided the Athenian population into four income groups based on annual profit gained from grain, oil, and wine.
Significant administrative positions were still reserved for citizens from the top two groups, but all Athenian citizens received the right to participate in the city’s management.
To encourage universal participation in government, Solon established the General Assembly, a prototype of America’s House of Representatives and other parliaments in modern democracies. Assembly meetings were used to discuss and issue laws, elect representatives, and process court appeals.
Unlike modern representative democracies, Athens was a direct democracy. Attendance was seen as the most important civic duty. Representatives were still elected for military campaigns, diplomatic ventures, and special administrative posts, but citizens were directly responsible for every decision. Every citizen could attend the Assembly. However, only free men qualified as citizens.
Democracy in Verse
To garner support for his radical platform, Solon continued using the poetry that had earned him power and respect. Solon’s tone was often prescriptive, and modern readers may wonder if his compositions count as “poetry.” Yet he did write in meter, often decorating his doctrinaire comments with poetic imagery typical of good poetry.
Solon was honored long after his death by the illustration of his likeness in 1553 by Guillaume Rouille. Public Domain
One of Solon’s longest surviving poems began by reminding people that they couldn’t blame political turmoil on supernatural powers: “Our state will never perish through the dispensation of Zeus or the intentions of the blessed immortal gods.” Rather, “it is citizens themselves who by their acts of foolishness and subservience to money are willing to destroy a great city.”
Solon is probably talking about debt, which he fought hard to abolish. But he was also concerned about corruption, whose repercussions were most consequential for non-aristocrats:
“So the public evil [corruption] comes home to each man and the courtyard gates no longer have the will to hold it back, but it leaps over the high barrier and assuredly finds him out, even if he takes refuge in an innermost corner of his room.”
Delivered with vigor and rhythm on public stages, these verses presented a dreadful image, especially for those who treasured their property.
Similarly, Solon urged his fellow Athenians to give up private interests and follow the law, two tenets of his democratic platform: “Lawlessness brings the city countless ills, but Lawfulness reveals all that is orderly and fitting, and often places fetters round the unjust.”
"Solon, the Wise Lawgiver of Athens," 1910, by Walter Crane. Public Domain
He employed natural imagery to warn listeners about underestimating unconstrained authority: “From a cloud comes the force of snow and hail, thunder from a flash of lightning, from powerful men a city’s destruction.”
To avoid catastrophe, Athenians should monitor the ruling class. How could they do that? By supporting Solon’s reforms.
Greed and Self-Control
As one who knew both opulence and scarcity, Solon understood the importance of self-control. Some of his poems stress the need for staving off greed, a message he directed primarily at the wealthy: “You who had more than your fill of many good things, calm the stern heart within your breast and moderate your ambition.” He also took issue with the middle and lower classes, whose “excess breeds insolence, whenever great prosperity comes to men who are not sound of mind.”Aristotle described Solon as “the first people’s champion.” By reminding elites that Athens’s wellbeing took precedence over private interests and telling the public that new privileges came with new responsibilities, Solon simultaneously imparted ethical advice and reinforced the attitudes he thought necessary for democracy to thrive.
Poetry or Propaganda?
Poetic though he was, Solon was still a politician. He differed from his aristocratic counterparts in that he championed the people’s causes. But he also understood the nature of politics, which revolved around reputation and self-advertisement, just as it does today.Aristocrats disliked Solon because they thought he pandered to the masses, who also criticized him because they thought some of his reforms still favored the Eupatridae. Solon took pride in his controversial reputation, showing commitment to Athens’s wellbeing over his own. But when he described himself as a warrior standing “with a mighty shield cast round both sides” to prevent giving “unjust victory” to either the elite or the people, he was also tooting his own horn.
George Forrest, former professor of Ancient History at the University of Oxford, described Solon as “somewhat self-centred, self-righteous, and just a trifle pompous.” Solon had every reason to present himself as a savior. It’s difficult to assess his merits from his poetry alone.
Speaking to and for the People
Solon realized that Athens demanded change, and that change required radical measures. He wasn’t the most gifted writer, and he, too, sought power and glory. But he also understood the need for communicating in terms people would understand, be they elites, government officials, or citizens with a right to know what’s going on. Poetry, the craft of the learned few and the delight of ordinary Athenians, was a great fit for his purpose.What arts and culture topics would you like us to cover? Please email ideas or feedback to [email protected]
