According to historian Gregory R. Johnson, the Western tradition of political philosophy can be understood as a debate between “the defenders of individual freedom and popular government” and “those who subordinate individual freedom to collective goals imposed by ruling elites.” For Johnson, the Greek philosopher Plato stood for elitism and collectivism, while his pupil Aristotle represented freedom and democracy.
I recently looked at how Plato influenced the American Founding Fathers. Although Adams, Jefferson, and Hamilton shared Plato’s concern for civic virtue, they disliked his emphasis on philosopher kings, among other things. Aristotle developed many of Plato’s original ideas. His influence on the masterminds behind the American project is more positive than his teacher’s, as shown by these three foundational concepts.
Happiness Above All
Aristotle thought that happiness was a universal motivation. Everything everyone does aims at wellbeing. He translated this insight into politics: “It is evident that the best constitution must be that organization in which anyone might do best and live a blessedly happy life.” The primary role of a government is to establish institutions that help citizens live the best lives possible with the fewest impairments.
The Founding Fathers took this notion to heart. The American Declaration of Independence mentions “happiness” twice. The word appears first in the celebrated proclamation of inalienable rights, among which are “Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.” The second mention is shortly after, where the document states that a new government should be “organizing its power in such form, as to [the People] shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness.”
Just like Aristotle, the Founders concluded that government wasn’t really there to rule, but to provide citizens with the means and incentives to rule themselves, so they could achieve happiness as they saw fit.
Bust of Aristotle. Marble, Roman copy after a Greek bronze original by Lysippos from 330 B.C. Ludovisi Collection, The National Museum of Rome, Altemps Palace. (Public Domain)
A Mixed Regime Is Better Than a Pure Regime
Aristotle was more realistic than Plato. He understood that every form of government was imperfect. Tyranny, a frequent distortion of a monarchy, precludes wellbeing completely because tyrants rule despotically over all. Aristocracy is the rule of a competent and well-intentioned minority, but it often becomes an oligarchy when the wealthy undermine justice in the name of private interest. Aristotle equated “democracy” with anarchic mob rule. He called the form of governance we associate with popular elections a “polity.”
For Aristotle, a mixed regime could remedy these inevitable shortcomings. The two systems of government he thought would make the best combination were polity and aristocracy. In principle, all citizens should be given equal rights. They should also be required by law to respect each other’s rights. But for stability and efficiency, a state should be ruled by the best-qualified individuals, who would be chosen and monitored by popular consent.
The Founding Fathers shared this idea in theory, but they didn’t agree with it in practice. Alexander Hamilton said that “ancient democracies” lacked “one feature of good government. Their very character was tyranny.” James Madison echoed this sentiment, describing ancient democracies as “spectacles of turbulence and contention.” Yet the American Founders believed in the rule of the people, which had been completely suppressed by the draconian British monarchy.They also believed in the power of excellence to inspire civic virtue, fuel the economy, and incentivize freedom.
Our Founding Fathers looked toward the future for our nation. Voinakh/Shutterstock
The framers of the Constitution eventually decided to implement this mixed theory more seriously, settling on a “representative democracy” as the best compromise. People could express their preferences by electing representatives, who would govern on their behalf while also considering corporate interests. In broad strokes, this design was similar to Aristotle’s. His concern for a stable, mixed government continues to shape political thought in the free world.
The Paramount Importance of the Rule of Law
Another lesson treasured by the Founding Fathers was Aristotle’s insistence on the rule of law. In a highly influential passage from “Politics,” Aristotle wrote that “he who would place the supreme power in mind, would place it in God and the laws; but he who entrusts man with it, gives it to a wild beast, for such his appetites sometimes make him; for passion influences those who are in power, even the very best of men.”
Together with his appreciation for a mixed government, Aristotle’s belief in a just rule of law inspired the separation of the American government into three complementary branches with the duty and ability to check each other.
A just legal system should prevent anyone from abusing power for nefarious purposes, a possibility Aristotle recognized as the worst danger for a society. To do so, law should be based on reason and divine principles, not on arbitrary rules that promote man’s sometimes primal and passionate nature.
In “Works on Government,” John Adams offered his interpretation of this passage: “Aristotle says, that ‘a government where the laws alone should prevail, would be the kingdom of God.’ This indeed shows that this great philosopher had much admiration of such a government.” Adams shared this admiration, as did the host of figures who laid the foundations for the American Republic.
The U.S. Capitol as seen from the U.S. Supreme Court Building. These two branches, coupled with the executive branch, make up the three branches of American government: legislative, judicial, and executive. debaird/CC BY-SA 2.0
The Founding Fathers adopted many other Aristotelian notions, including the philosopher’s emphasis on the inseparability of political integrity and civic virtue, which he shared with Plato and virtually every other classical philosopher. That Plato and Aristotle would be considered worthy of shaping a political project that unfolded 2,000 years after their deaths signals their genius. It also shows the Founding Fathers’ respect for the classical tradition, the origin of the West’s intellectual inheritance.
As regards the founding of the United States of America, Aristotle’s influence was incredibly pervasive, perhaps more so than any other ancient thinker.
What arts and culture topics would you like us to cover? Please email ideas or feedback to [email protected]
Leo Salvatore
Author
Leo Salvatore holds a bachelor's and a master's in the humanities, with a focus on classics and philosophy. His writing has appeared in Venti, VoegelinView, Future in Educational Research, Medium, and his Substack, “Thales’ Well.”
