Cicero on the Ideal Orator

A bust of Cicero is central in an arrangement of Roman busts. SSJF01/CC BY-SA 2.0

The recent presidential debates have renewed interest in rhetoric. Defined by Merriam Webster as “the art of speaking or writing effectively,” the systematic practice of rhetoric began in ancient Greece, where naturally gifted orators used their speaking skills to defend clients in court. As rhetoric turned from a tool for legal defense to an educational endeavor for broader swaths of professionals, rhetoricians received both praise and blame for teaching how to manipulate emotions and opinions through speech.

In one of the most popular ancient texts on the art of rhetoric—“De Oratore”—the Roman statesman Cicero paints a picture of the “ideal orator.” What are the most important traits of a good speaker? How can the powerful tool of oratory be used for good? Cicero’s answers are as timely as ever.

‘De Oratore’: On the Ideal Orator 

Written in 55 B.C. “De Oratore” is a three-book dialogue between Lucius Licinius Crassus, Marcus Antonius, and a few secondary characters. Through the experiences and opinions of his carefully selected interlocutors, Cicero describes the nature of oratory and the qualities that define the best conceivable orator. Although it mostly concerns politics, “De Oratore” can also be read as a universal manual for anyone interested in becoming a better speaker and thinker.

"The Young Cicero Reading," 1464, by Vincenzo Foppa. Fresco; 40 inches by 56 1/2 inches. The Wallace Collection, London. Public Domain

Early on, Crassus argues that eloquence is necessary but insufficient to become a great speaker. An orator needs more than just the ability to control speech. Antonius responds with a more pragmatic view, suggesting that what matters most is the ability to tailor one’s words to different audiences and circumstances.

As the dialogue progresses, we sense that Cicero’s loyalty lies mostly with Crassus. Through a series of edifying disagreements between his spokesmen, Cicero offers five essential qualities that every great orator must possess.

1. Factual Knowledge 

Cicero’s first requirement for an ideal orator is straightforward: know the facts. Can an advocate “either assail or defend a commander-in-chief without experience of the art of war”? Or can he “address the popular assembly in favor of the passing or rejection of legislative proposals, or the Senate concerning any of the departments of State administration, if he lack consummate knowledge”?

We can’t be convincing if we know little or nothing about our topic. A speaker must know what he’s talking about. It’s a simple thing, but Cicero might have surprised by its state in discourse today.

2. Broad Education 

To become as competent as possible, an orator should pursue a broad education. Cicero was particularly impressed by Aratus, a poet who sang odes to the skies. If someone like Aratus, who knew nothing substantive about astronomy, could recite such excellent poems about the stars, “what reason is there why an orator should not discourse most eloquently concerning those subjects which he has conned for a specific argument and occasion?”

"Cicero Denounces Catiline," 1880, by Cesare Maccari. Fresco. Palazzo Madama, Rome. Public Domain

An orator should be apt at speaking about many subjects, not to arrogantly flaunt his superior intellect, but rather to show the depth that befits a person of high status: “No one should be numbered with the orators who [are] not accomplished” in as many arts as possible.

3. Command of Human Psychology

The ideal orator must also possess a deep knowledge of “all the mental emotions.” A thorough understanding of fears, desires, and motivations provides a useful roadmap for approaching a speech in a specific circumstance: “It is in calming or kindling the feelings of the audience that the full power and science of oratory are to be brought into play.” The study of psychology and of appropriate techniques to elicit emotional responses from an audience are necessary to refine our rhetorical powers.

4. Sharp and Extensive Memory

As we outsource our lives to algorithms and automation, our short-term and long-term memories might be taking a hit. Yet memory is fundamental for any professional speaking engagement. Cicero wrote that without committing to memory “the complete history of the past and a store of precedents,” an orator would fall short of his ideal. This standard is highly demanding, but it serves as a compass by which we can become ever greater rhetoricians.

The first page of a miniature version of "De Oratore" by Cicero, published in the 1400s. Public Domain

To improve our ability to retain stories and information, Cicero suggests we learn as many written works as possible. He’s not just talking about reading a book to try to understand it. He means committing memorable passages from that book to heart, so that we could recite them on command, if or when needed.

Cicero discusses another technique that is still popular among memory champions: the memory palace. To create a memory palace, we need to select a familiar place, “form mental images of the facts” we want to remember, and “store those images” in our familiar place. As we make our way through the memory palace with our imagination, we can recollect the facts we want to remember.

Regardless of approach, a robust and spacious memory is essential. A feeble one denotes intellectual decay, which has no place in the highest domains of political and public life.

5. Moral Integrity

In addition to being a valuable manual for becoming a compelling speaker, “De Oratore” issues a warning about misusing rhetorical powers for nefarious ends. Knowing how to manipulate emotions by speech is a powerful skill, especially in politics. Cicero, who witnessed several waves of violent social upheaval, knew that persuasion could be exploited by unprincipled orators.

To avoid aiding ill-intentioned actors with his specific instructions, Cicero stressed the need to study moral philosophy. Philosophy, he thought, helps us to build a moral character, which complements an orator’s rhetorical prowess. The orator’s objectives should be noble and benevolent, as should the intentions behind his words. If his ideas, articulation, delivery, and every other aspect of his rhetorical performance don’t stand on firm moral ground, if they are driven by egocentrism and deceit, that orator has fallen short of this ideal and deserves frank criticism.

Does our political environment encourage sound rhetoric? Do our leaders embody Cicero’s attributes or at least aspire to? As we near a momentous presidential election, this Roman’s insights become ever more salient.

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