3 Lessons in Leadership From a King’s Biographer

The tomb of King Cyrus of Persia is now located in modern-day Iran. Adam63/CC BY-SA 2.0

What traits must a great leader possess? This deceivingly simple question should be on everyone’s mind. Understanding the qualities that define great leaders helps us recognize and cultivate them in ourselves.

One of the oldest portraits of a leader and his qualities is Xenophon’s “Cyropaedia.” Although it was written over two millennia ago, this biography contains crucial insights into the nature of leadership. Through a series of examples from the life of Cyrus the Great of Persia, Xenophon discussed 3 traits every leader must have.

A 1905 photograph of a bust of Xenophon. Berlin. Public Domain

Xenophon of Athens: Historian, Philosopher, and General

Unlike other ancient authors, Xenophon’s life is relatively well documented, partly because he wrote a memoir titled “Anabasis” (Greek for “descent”). He was born around 430 B.C. in Athens. During his youth, the Greek peninsula was engulfed in the Peloponnesian War, in which Sparta and Athens fought for supremacy over the Hellenic world.

Young Xenophon associated with the philosopher Socrates, to whom he dedicated four dialogues. The same political tension that eventually led to Socrates’s execution also affected Xenophon. He witnessed several tumultuous events, including the overthrow of Athenian democracy by the infamous Thirty Tyrants, a group of oligarchs installed by Sparta after its victory over Athens.

When he was 30, Xenophon was personally invited to participate in a military campaign against the Persian kingdom of Tissaphernes, which he described in his memoir. This was one of many battles in the Mediterranean basin. In addition to the bloody Peloponnesian war, the area had recently witnessed several skirmishes between Greek, Carthaginian, and Persian chiefdoms that were competing for regional supremacy.

This precarious situation left a mark on Xenophon’s writings. Of the five historical works he wrote, all deal with war in one way or another. Among these is the “Cyropaedia,” which tells the story of Cyrus the Great, King of Persia, and the qualities behind his formidable rule.

Charisma

One of Cyrus’s most effective qualities was charisma: the ability to inspire devotion in others. In Xenophon’s words, “Cyrus was most handsome in person, most generous of heart, most devoted to learning, and most ambitious, so that he endured all sorts of labour and faced all sorts of danger for the sake of praise.” Some of his appeal was naturally enhanced by his looks and bravery. But most of it came from his ability to persuade and inspire with honest words.

In one battle against Assyrian tribes, Cyrus was at a palpable numerical disadvantage. The only way to win the battle was to change his soldiers’ attitude. The general rallied his distressed army and delivered a speech, exhorting soldiers to count on courage above all else. Xenophon described how his eloquent bluntness reformed the army into a disciplined melee force. His followers respected him and willingly offered their unwavering commitment to his cause. They overcame their disadvantages and vanquished the enemy. As Xenophon reminds us, charisma can make the difference between life and death.

The Palace of Versailles portrays Cyrus the Great in various places. In the Salon de Diane, one of the Grand Apartments of King Louis XIV, Cyrus is shown as a hunter. “Cyrus Hunting a Boar” by Claude Audran II. Public Domain

A depiction of Cyrus of Persia. DiegoColle/CC BY-SA 4.0

Discipline 

Without discipline, success is impossible. As a young Persian boy, Cyrus was made to learn everything from moral philosophy to hunting. The regimented lifestyle he developed as a youth translated to his experiences in the palaces of veteran kings. During a long stay with his grandfather, King Astyages of Media, Cyrus resisted the temptations of luxury. For instance, he courteously refused to dine from the fancy banquets prepared for him, preferring to retain his simpler, more moderate eating habits.

Once his armies observed his impressive discipline firsthand, they became more willing to accept Cyrus’ strenuous demands. He put his soldiers under harsh training, repurposing some of his weaker troops and teaching others new combat skills. He rewarded discipline with generous food portions and promotions: “in the case of captains, those who were thought to have got their companies into the best condition should be made colonels; of the lieutenants, those who were thought to have put their platoons into the best condition should be advanced to the rank of captains,” and so forth.

Cyrus’s meritocratic attitude prized hard work above all else, earning him great respect among soldiers, politicians, and ordinary people.

Strategic Thinking 

Part of Cyrus’ success is attributable to his charismatic orations, part of it to strategic thinking. The general was a brilliant strategist and an indefatigable negotiator. As a 16-year-old, he offered his services to counter Assyrian incursions against the kingdom of Media, where his maternal line ruled. He planned to use a small cavalry force to intercept infantry loot carriers, reducing his army’s exposure on the battlefield and regaining the stolen goods. The strategy was daring, but successful. His victory earned him respect as a tactician, jumpstarting his rise to power.

Negotiation also played a crucial part in Cyrus’ success. Sometimes he vanquished his enemies, but other times he took the less bloody road. Xenophon wrote that rather than destroy a large group of Armenian forces he had conquered in one of his expeditions, Cyrus negotiated a durable alliance, gaining troops and resources in addition to land. The ability to understand a scenario, assess competing interests at play between all parties involved, and propose appealing compromises was essential to Cyrus’ success, as it is for every aspiring leader.

Xenophon’s Legacy

Xenophon was writing during a war-torn period about a military general who, despite his displays of virtue, was accustomed to using force to submit his opponents. The philosopher admitted that Cyrus’s occasional tyrannical deeds sowed the seeds for problems that eventually corroded the Persian empire. This honest conclusion has made Xenophon’s work that much more influential.

In the ancient world, the “Cyropaedia” was consulted regularly by such world-shaping figures as Alexander the Great, Cicero, and Julius Caesar. The book became the archetype of the “mirror of princes” literary genre. Throughout the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, authors turned to writing leadership manuals for kings and prominent political administrators, including historical accounts of good and bad rulers. Niccolò Machiavelli drew extensively from Xenophon’s style and content to write his influential “The Prince.”

The statue of Xenophon, Ancient Greek historian and philosopher, stands before the Austrian Parliament Building in Vienna. Public Domain

The influence of “Cyropaedia” continued through the Enlightenment and the modern period, reaching prominent figures in the New World. Benjamin Franklin alluded to the book approvingly, while Thomas Jefferson apparently had two copies in his private library.

Historical details aside, Xenophon’s message is simple. To excel, a leader must secure genuine respect, display inspiring discipline, and operate strategically to make the best out of every situation. Today, who best exemplifies these traits?

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