250 Years Ago, Part 3: The First Continental Congress and Gun Control

The entrance to Fort William and Mary, or Fort Constitution, today. It was the site of a raid to secure arms and arsenal for the American militia. New Hampshire State Park. Public Domain

By the fall of 1774—the final year of peace between Great Britain and its American colonies—tensions between the people of Massachusetts Bay and the British Army occupying Boston had reached a breaking point. Both sides relentlessly provoked one another, ignoring the potential consequences. Gen. Thomas Gage’s hopes for a peaceful resolution for the province he governed had long since faded. Attempts to enforce laws, restore order, or suppress unsanctioned town meetings often backfired, leading to clashes between his soldiers and large, angry mobs.

Despite the steady arrival of additional regiments of soldiers and marines each month to reinforce his command, Gage’s control of the province continued to crumble. A striking example of this decline occurred when patriot militias boldly stole four cannons from Boston—right under the noses of his redcoats. To further undermine Gage’s authority, the colonists established an illegal Provincial Congress, led by John Hancock, which directly challenged his rule.

Relying on intelligence reports from his spy network, Gage warned London that the militias had amassed vast stockpiles of arms which posed an immediate threat to both his troops and his administration. Without reinforcements numbering around 20,000, Gage feared that Britain’s hold on the region could soon be lost.

Gun Control and Troop Buildup

In response to Gen. Gage’s warnings, King George III issued an order banning the export of weapons and gunpowder to the American colonies. This decree had an immediate and profound impact on the American’s ability to engage in war. With only a handful of powder mills capable of producing gunpowder, the colonists relied heavily on English imports for their supply of this vital resource.

When news of the king’s order reached the colonies, Americans began stockpiling gunpowder and relocating their firearms to the countryside to prevent confiscation by British troops.

Mounting Tensions in Philadelphia

A drawing of Joseph Galloway, 1885, by Thomas Emmet. Public Domain

Meanwhile, in Philadelphia, tensions continued rising in the ongoing First Continental Congress. Joseph Galloway’s frustration with the so-called “violent party”—his term for those advocating confrontation with Parliament—was becoming increasingly apparent to those gathered at Carpenters’ Hall. The assembly had already adopted the “Suffolk Resolves,” a measure Galloway and his allies viewed as treasonous.

In a last-ditch effort to peaceably resolve the crisis with Britain, Galloway urged his colleagues to reconsider their support of the Suffolk Resolves and instead adopt his proposed “Plan of Union.” He passionately argued, “We want the Aid and Assistance and Protection of the Arm of our Mother Country. Protection and Allegiance are reciprocal Duties. Can We lay claim to the Money and Protection of G. Britain upon any Principles of Honour or Conscience? Can We wish to become Aliens to the Mother State? We must come upon Terms with G. Britain.”

Despite Galloway’s pleas, the Plan of Union was narrowly defeated, leaving the “violent party” in control of the congressional agenda for the rest of the session. According to historian Lynn Montross in “The Reluctant Rebels,” both Galloway and New York delegate James Duane sought to record their opposition to the Suffolk Resolves. When this request was denied, the two issued certificates to one another affirming that neither had supported what they viewed as a seditious resolution.

Time to Wrap This Up and Go Home

As the final day of the session approached, delegates known for their writing skills, such as John Jay and John Dickinson, drafted resolutions, petitions, and action plans for approval and signing. While most of the approved measures including the Suffolk Resolves expressed defiance toward Parliament, they also affirmed loyalty to the king.

Among the additional measures approved by congress were the “Declaration of Rights,” listing their rights and grievances; a “The Petition of the Grand American Continental Congress, to the King’s Most Excellent Majesty” seeking a sympathetic response from the king; the “Letter to the Inhabitants of the Province of Quebec,” aiming to gain Canadian support; and the “Address to the People of Great Britain,” appealing to Britons to question the morality of their government’s actions.

Perhaps the most significant achievement was the adoption of the “Articles of Association,” which established the “Continental Association.” This agreement fostered cooperation and unity among the colonies by imposing continent-wide sanctions against all imported British goods, wares, and merchandise, effective Dec. 1, 1774. The embargo also extended to halting the slave trade.

The Articles of Association created “committees of safety” and “committees of inspection,” which functioned as shadow governments for each colony. These committees implemented Congress’s measures, challenged Parliament’s authority, undermined colonial officials who enforced British edicts, and publicly condemned Loyalists who sided with the Crown.

The delegates agreed to reconvene in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775, for a Second Continental Congress if the Intolerable Acts were not repealed. Invitations would also be extended to Quebec, St. John’s Island (now Prince Edward Island), Nova Scotia, Georgia, West Florida, and East Florida. On Oct. 20, 1774, it adopted the Articles of Association, which stated that if the Coercive Acts were not repealed by Dec. 1, 1774, a boycott of British goods would begin in the colonies. The Articles also provided plans for an embargo on exports if the Acts were not repealed by Sept. 10, 1775.

Before Congress adjourned on Oct. 26, Secretary Charles Thomson attached a note to the documents destined for Benjamin Franklin in London. In this note, Thomson wrote, “I hope the administration will see and be convinced that it is not a little faction, but the whole body of American freeholders from Nova Scotia to Georgia that now complain and apply for redress; And who, I am sure, will resist rather than submit. ... We are on the brink of a precipice.”

A portrait of Charles Thomson, circa 1785. Public Domain

King George, however, refused to address the petitions and grievances. He declared to Prime Minister Lord North, “The New England government are in a state of Rebellion, blows must decide whether they are to be subject to this Country or independent.”

The Shot Not Heard Round the World

Patriot spies in Boston received intelligence (later proven faulty) that Gen. Gage had ordered two redcoat regiments to secure Fort William and Mary (now Fort Constitution) on New Castle Island near Portsmouth, New Hampshire. The fort was known for its large stockpiles of weapons and powder. Paul Revere braved the freezing weather to deliver the warning, arriving at patriot leader Samuel Cutts’s house in Portsmouth on the evening of Dec. 13. Cutts promptly convened the local Committee of Correspondence and dispatched messengers to raise the alarm across the region.

On Dec. 14, about 200 militiamen, led by John Langdon and Thomas Pickering, set out by boat for New Castle Island, where they swelled to 400. They marched to Fort William and Mary and demanded the surrender of the garrison, which consisted of just six defenders. Capt. John Cochran, the fort’s commander, refused, warning that his men would defend the fort. Langdon and sea captain Robert White attempted to negotiate, requesting only the gunpowder, but when no agreement was reached, they returned to their men.

Langdon ordered an assault on the fort. Militiamen rushed from all directions, scaling the walls as Cochran and his men fired muskets and artillery. A brief but intense hand-to-hand struggle ensued, ending with the overwhelmed defenders subdued and Cochran wrestled to the ground. During the chaos, the British flag was lowered and trampled, sparking a heated scuffle. At one point, a patriot militiaman aimed his pistol into the face of a fort defender and pulled the trigger.

Fortunately for the intended victim, the pistol misfired. Had it discharged and the shot been fatal, the Revolutionary War might have started that frigid winter day in Portsmouth instead of in Lexington the following April. Although numerous rounds were fired during the raid, there were no fatalities. The militiamen eventually departed with approximately one hundred barrels of gunpowder.

The next day, Maj. John Sullivan, who earlier served as a delegate to the Continental Congress, arrived in Portsmouth with a larger force of militiamen intent on seizing the fort’s remaining weapons. Having learned his lesson from the previous day, Capt. Cochran offered no resistance. The patriots took 16 cannons, along with guns and other military supplies.

Howard Pyle's painting depicts the surrender of British forces at Fort William and Mary to colonial leaders. Harper's magazine. The New York Public Library. Public Domain

Within a week, patriot militias raided additional armories, including those at New London, Connecticut and Fort George in Rhode Island. Arms smuggling flourished throughout New England, with Spain and the Netherlands eager to support the patriot cause with their smuggling operations.

1775 Begins: Countdown to War

Boston’s harsh winters were typically a time to hunker down until the spring thaw. Gen. Gage, however, used this period to refine his intelligence network. He planned reconnaissance missions into the countryside to locate militia arms caches, followed by pre-dawn raids to seize the weapons and munitions.

Meanwhile, the Sons of Liberty were devising their own strategies at secret locations, such as Boston’s Green Dragon Tavern, to stay ahead of Gage’s moves. After one such meeting, Paul Revere pulled Dr. Joseph Warren aside with a grave warning: a trusted and credible source wishing to remain anonymous had recently discovered that an unknown leader within their inner circle had been leaking vital intelligence to Gen. Gage. It seemed their strategies and resistance operations had been compromised for some time.

Today the Green Dragon Tavern boasts the same name and is in the same general location but is not the original building. Courtesy of Alan Wakim

For the first article in this series, visit “250 Years Ago: The Road to the Revolutionary War.”

What arts and culture topics would you like us to cover? Please email ideas or feedback to [email protected]